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ఆంటీ తో మంచం మీద ఒక రాత్రి, The transport layer must deal with the imperfections of the network layer service. There are three types of imperfections that must be considered by the transport layer : Segments can be corrupted by transmission errors Segments can be lost Segments can be reordered or duplicated To deal with these types of imperfections, transport protocols rely on different types of mechanisms. The first problem is transmission errors. The segments sent by a transport entity is processed by the network and datalink layers and finally transmitted by the physical layer. All of these layers are imperfect. For example, the physical layer may be affected by different types of errors : random isolated errors where the value of a single bit has been modified due to a transmission error random burst errors where the values of n consecutive bits have been changed due to transmission errors random bit creations and random bit removals where bits have been added or removed due to transmission errors The only solution to protect against transmission errors is to add redundancy to the segments that are sent. Information Theory defines two mechanisms that can be used to transmit information over a transmission channel affected by random errors. These two mechanisms add redundancy to the information sent, to allow the receiver to detect or sometimes even correct transmission errors. A detailed discussion of these mechanisms is outside the scope of this chapter, but it is useful to consider a simple mechanism to understand its operation and its limitations. Information theory defines coding schemes. There are different types of coding schemes, but let us focus on coding schemes that operate on binary strings. A coding scheme is a function that maps information encoded as a string of m bits into a string of n bits. The simplest coding scheme is the even parity coding. This coding scheme takes an m bits source string and produces an m+1 bits coded string where the first m bits of the coded string are the bits of the source string and the last bit of the coded string is chosen such that the coded string will always contain an even number of bits set.

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telugu aunty boothu kathalu, kamapisachi telugu boothu kathalu, exbii telugu boothu kathalu, newboard telugu boothu kathalu, tappevaridi telugu boothu kathalu, hansika telugu boothu kathalu, telugu boothu kathalu youtube, telugu boothu kathalu archana. The figure above illustrates an internetwork, i.e. a network that interconnects other networks. Each network is illustrated as an ellipse containing a few devices. We will explain throughout the book the different types of devices and their respective roles enabling all hosts to exchange information. As well as this, we will discuss how networks are interconnected, and the rules that guide these interconnections. We will also analyse how the bus, ring and mesh topologies are used to build real networks.The last point of terminology we need to discuss is the transmission modes. When exchanging information through a network, we often distinguish between three transmission modes. In TV and radio transmission, broadcast is often used to indicate a technology that sends a video or radio signal to all receivers in a given geographical area. Broadcast is sometimes used in computer networks, but only in local area networks where the number of recipients is limited. The first and most widespread transmission mode is called unicast . In the unicast transmission mode, information is sent by one sender to one receiver. Most of today’s Internet applications rely on the unicast transmission mode. The example below shows a network with two types of devices : hosts (drawn as computers) and intermediate nodes (drawn as cubes). Hosts exchange information via the intermediate nodes. In the example below, when host S uses unicast to send information, it sends it via three intermediate nodes. Each of these nodes receives the information from its upstream node or host, then processes and forwards it to its downstream node or host. This is called store and forward and we will see later that this concept is key in computer networks. A second transmission mode is multicast transmission mode. This mode is used when the same information must be sent to a set of recipients. It was first used in LANs but later became supported in wide area networks. When a sender uses multicast to send information to N receivers, the sender sends a single copy of the information and the network nodes duplicate this information whenever necessary, so that it can reach all recipients belonging to the destination group. To understand the importance of multicast transmission, consider source S that sends the same information to destinations A, C and E. With unicast, the same information passes three times on intermediate nodes 1 and 2 and twice on node 4. This is a waste of resources on the intermediate nodes and on the links between them. With multicast transmission, host S sends the information to node 1 that forwards it downstream to node 2. This node creates a copy of the received information and sends one copy directly to host E and the other downstream to node 4. Upon reception of the information, node 4 produces a copy and forwards one to node A and another to node C. Thanks to multicast, the same information can reach a large number of receivers while being sent only once on each link.

Telugu Boothu Kathalu

telugu aunty boothu kathalu, telugu boothu kathalu, telugu aunty boothu kathalu, kamapisachi telugu boothu kathalu, exbii telugu boothu kathalu, newboard telugu boothu kathalu, tappevaridi telugu boothu kathalu, hansika telugu boothu kathalu, telugu boothu kathalu youtube, telugu boothu kathalu archana. There is as yet no single, commonly-agreed definition of "cloud computing". The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology has defined it as follows "Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction." Under this definition, the cloud model promotes availability and is composed of five essential characteristics, three delivery models and four deployment models. The five key characteristics of cloud computing are on-demand self service, ubiquitous network access, location-independent resource pooling, rapid elasticity and measured service, all of which are geared towards seamless and transparent cloud use. Rapid elasticity enables the scaling up (or down) of resources. Measured services are primarily derived from business model properties whereby cloud service providers control and optimize the use of computing resources through automated resource allocation, load balancing and metering tools. The three cloud service delivery models (see figure 1) are: Application/Software as a Service (SaaS),Platform as a Service (PaaS) and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). ITU Technology Watch published a separate report on the cloud computing phenomenon in March 2009 [15]. These three classic cloud service models have different divisions of responsibility with respect to personal data protection. The risks and benefits associated with each model will also differ, and need to be determined on a case-by-case basis and in relation to the nature of the cloud services in question. SaaS enables the consumer to use the provider’s applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through a client interface such as a web browser (e.g. web-based email such as Gmail or CRM from Salesforce). With the SaaS model, the consumer has little or no influence how input data is processed, but should be able to have confidence in the cloud provider’s responsibility and compliance or can control which input he gives to a SaaS. First of all he can avoid to give sensible data to a SaaS. Secondly he might be able to "secure" the sensible data before he inputs them into the SaaS (e.g. their exists plugins for browsers supporting encryption of input form fields. This could be used to send only encrypted mails using Gmail). PaaS provides tools, supported by a cloud provider, that enable developers to deploy applications (e.g. Salesforce's Force.com, Google App Engine, Mozilla Bespin, Zoho Creator). On the one hand, a big responsibility lies with the developer to use best practices and privacy-friendly tools. On the other hand the developer has to rely on the trustworthiness of the underlying PaaS (and related infrastructure). Assume for instance that some developer has developed a cloud application which encrypts all data before it is stored within the cloud storage provided by the PaaS. In this case the developer has to trust that the platform/infrastructure is not compromised. Otherwise the attacker might get access to the clear text (i.e. before encryption happens) – because he can control the execution environment (e.g. virtual machine monitor, hardware etc.). IaaS provides the consumer with computing resources to run software. One example of IaaS is Amazon EC2 Web Services. An IaaS provider will typically take responsibility for securing the data centres, network and systems, and will take steps to ensure that its employees and operational procedures comply with applicable laws and regulations. However, since an IaaS provider may have little application-level knowledge, it will be difficult for that provider to ensure data-level compliance, such as geographic restriction of data transfers. In this case, the responsibility lies with the cloud user to maintain compliance controls. IaaS is the model that guarantees more direct control but also leaves the customer responsible for the implementation of technical and procedural security and resilience measures [6]. With respect to standardization there.